Microbial EOR | Enhanced Oil Recovery

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When an oil well is first completed and oil production begins, this is called the primary oil recovery stage. Anywhere from 5% to 15% of the "original oil in place" (OOIP) in the oil well's reservoir is recovered via "natural" reservoir drive, meaning natural forces drive or displace the oil into the production well's well bore.

The secondary oil recovery stage is where additional production measures are installed wherein anywhere from 10% to 30% of the original oil in place is recovered.

According to the Department of Energy, there are 400 billion barrels of original oil in place that has still not been recovered. Tertiary Oil Recovery, also called "EOR" or "Tertiary Oil Recovery" has the potential to recover up to 60% of this 400 billion barrels of oil, or 240 Billion barrels of oil. At $100/barrel, Enhanced Oil Recovery or "Tertiary Oil Recovery" represents a $24 Trillion market opportunity in the U.S. alone.

Enhanced Oil Recovery
Through CO2 Injection & Carbon Capture and Sequestration

Some of the following information courtesy of the Department of Energy

DOE's Enhanced Oil Recover/CO2 Injection Research Program

Program Goal
Enable enhanced recovery of the nation's "stranded oil" resources. DOE's program focuses on evaluating possible candidate locations for future CO2 injection enhanced oil recovery, utilizing CO2 from industrial sources, as well as geologic sources.

Crude oil development and production in U.S. oil reservoirs can include up to three distinct phases: primary, secondary, and enhanced oil recovery. During primary recovery, the natural pressure of the reservoir or gravity drive oil into the wellbore, combined with artificial lift techniques (such as pumps) which bring the oil to the surface. But only about 10 percent of a reservoir's original oil in place is typically produced during primary recovery. Secondary recovery techniques to the field's productive life generally by injecting water or gas to displace oil and drive it to a production wellbore, resulting in the recovery of 20 to 40 percent of the original oil in place.

However, with much of the easy-to-produce oil already recovered from U.S. oil fields, producers have attempted several enhanced oil recovery (EOR), techniques that offer prospects for ultimately producing 30 to 60 percent, or more, of the reservoir's original oil in place.

Three major categories of enhanced oil recovery have been found to be commercially successful to varying degrees:

Thermal recovery, which involves the introduction of heat such as the injection of steam to lower the viscosity, or thin, the heavy viscous oil, and improve its ability to flow through the reservoir. Thermal techniques account for over 50 percent of U.S. enhanced oil recovery production, primarily in California.
Gas injection, which uses gases such as natural gas, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide that expand in a reservoir to push additional oil to a production wellbore, or other gases that dissolve in the oil to lower its viscosity and improves its flow rate. Gas injection accounts for nearly 50 percent of enhanced oil recovery production in the United States.
Chemical injection, which can involve the use of long-chained molecules called polymers to increase the effectiveness of waterfloods, or the use of detergent-like surfactants to help lower the surface tension that often prevents oil droplets from moving through a reservoir. Chemical techniques account for less than one percent of U.S. enhanced oil recovery production.

Each of these techniques has been hampered by its relatively high cost and, in some cases, by the unpredictability of its effectiveness.

CO2 Injection Offers Considerable Potential Benefits

Schematic of CO2 enhanced oil recovery process

Graphic of CO2 enhanced oil recovery. Courtesy of Occidental Petroleum Corp.

The enhanced oil recovery technique that is attracting the most new market interest is carbon dioxide CO2-EOR. First tried in 1972 in Scurry County, Texas, CO2 injection has been used successfully throughout the Permian Basin of West Texas and eastern New Mexico, and is now being pursued to a limited extent in Kansas, Mississippi, Wyoming, Oklahoma, Colorado, Utah, Montana, Alaska, and Pennsylvania.

Until recently, most of the CO2 used for enhanced oil recovery has come from naturally-occurring reservoirs. But new technologies are being developed to produce CO2 from industrial applications such as natural gas processing, fertilizer, ethanol, and hydrogen plants in locations where naturally occurring reservoirs are not available. One demonstration at the Dakota Gasification Company's plant in Beulah, North Dakota is producing CO2 and delivering it by a new 204-mile pipeline to the Weyburn oil field in Saskatchewan, Canada, for CO2 injection there. Encana, the field's operator, is injecting the CO2 to extend the field's productive life, hoping to add another 25 years and as much as 130 million barrels of oil that might otherwise have been abandoned.

Current CO2-EOR Operations

At present (January 2010), over 48 million metric tons per year of CO2 are used for enhanced oil recovery. Of this total, about 25 percent (12 million tons) is anthropogenic in origin i.e., produced by human activities such as oil refining or fertilizer manufacturing (Trinity 2006). The rest is extracted from naturally occurring deposits.

The CO2 that is used to increase oil production via enhanced oil recovery is an expensive commodity, and for this reason oil companies are motivated to ensure that up to three quarters of the CO2 that is injected remains underground in the oil field. The amount of CO2 sequestered is highly dependent on whether the field is blown-down following any CO2 operations. Further research and development in this area is expected to improve the storage rate to close to 100 percent. Estimates made by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) show that depleted oil and gas wells in the United States and Canada have the potential to sequester over 82 billion tons of carbon dioxide in total.

MORE INFO

01.03.05 Techline: CO2 Injection Boosts Oil Recovery

A turning-point in CO2-EOR advances is a project funded by DOE in the Hall-Gurney field in Kansas that seeks to demonstrate this technology's time has come - providing energy, economic and environmental benefits. A companion project underway in the Hall-Gurney field involves testing the feasibility of 4-D high resolution seismic monitoring of CO2 injection in thin, relatively shallow mature carbonate reservoirs. Incorporating such time-lapsed monitoring data into CO2-EOR programs could dramatically improve the efficiency and economics of using the technology in many Midcontinent fields.

New breakthroughs in CO2-EOR recovery technology could further enhance oil recovery in Texas and other oil producing states. One DOE-industry partnership project is investigating gravity-stable CO2 injection in the Permian Basin in West Texas, where the goal is to increase oil recovery in the Scurry Canyon Reef field.

DOE Basin-Oriented CO2-EOR Assessments

MORE INFO

In February 2006, a series of technical reports released by the Department on Energy (DOE) Office of Fossil Energy highlight the significant potential for state-of-the-art and advanced oil recovery technologies to significantly contribute to the development of the large volume of remaining undeveloped domestic oil resources in the United States. Ten basin-oriented assessments- four new, three updated and three previously released- estimate that 89 billion barrels of additional oil from currently "stranded" oil resources in ten U.S. regions could be technically recoverable by applying state-of-the-art CO2-EOR technologies.

Benefits of CO2-EOR

CO2-EOR is a promising method of carbon capture and sequestration for a number of reasons.

First, the geologic structures that originally contained the oil and natural gas should also permanently contain the injected CO2, provided the integrity of the structures is maintained. From seismic studies, the geologic structure and physical properties of many oil and gas fields are well understood. This, combined with the vast amount of industry experience with gas-injection enhanced oil recovery, provides a knowledge base from which to start researching the sequestration implications of CO2-EOR.

Another benefit of CO2-EOR for sequestration purposes is the widespread distribution of depleted and operating oil and gas fields, making it likely that an oil field is near a CO2 source.

Finally, carbon capture and sequestration from CO2-EOR projects can create offsets resulting in trades in the emerging greenhouse gas market. Many companies are now offering these services and financial transactions to sequester carbon dioxide emissions. One example includes the "forward purchase" of 6 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions (equivalent) and the company then optioned for an additional 3 million tons of CO2 equivalent that resulted from geologic sequestration projects in Texas, Wyoming, and Mississippi, where the carbon dioxide emissions would otherwise have been vented by the natural gas processing plants used for enhanced oil recovery.

Enhanced Oil Recovery Activities

CO2 is specifically processed for most of the 82 projects utilizing CO2 for enhanced oil recovery (Moritis, 2006). The CO2 for these projects is mined from naturally occurring, high-pressure deposits that occur close enough to oil fields to make transmission economically feasible. The following table lists DOE-sponsored projects that utilize anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions for EOR and additionally promote greenhouse gas emissions reductions, since this CO2 would otherwise be vented to the atmosphere.

Enhanced Oil Recovery Benefits

Increasing the use of Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) also ends our need for buying oil from overseas while getting Americans back to work recovering America's oil instead of sending our dollars overseas for the oil we need. Increasing the use of Enhanced Oil Recovery in the U.S. significantly reduces America's debt and foreign trade imbalance. The Muslim oil countries that we are buying are oil from simply don't like us or America's policies. That's why many of the Muslim oil countries we are buying our oil from then take our dollars we send them for the oil we need, and make bombs and bullets and send our boys back in body bags. That has got to stop. No more American soldiers dying for foreign oil. Our troops are over there because we need their oil, yet we have 400 billion barrels of oil that are left behind, as companies like ExxonMobil pull out of the oil wells they drilled here, after they get the "easy oil" out of the ground, leaving 40% - 70% of the OOIP (original oil in place) still in the ground. That's what Enhanced Oil Recovery is all about, getting the rest of America's oil out of the ground.

At $100/barrel, Enhanced Oil Recovery represents a $24 Trillion market opportunity here in the U.S.! At $80.00/bbl, that's still almost $20 Trillion which puts Americans back to work and 100% of the money stays in the U.S. Talk about a "stimulus package!"

Best of all, Enhanced Oil Recovery uses the carbon dioxide from power plants emissions, to inject underground which frees the stranded oil left behind, as CO2 works better than anything else to free the stranded oil. After you get the oil out, you plug the well, and leave the carbon dioxide emissions underground, "sequestered," which is why Enhanced Oil Recovery is the "green" way to produce America's oil!

Additional work has examined potential improvements in CO2-EOR technologies beyond the state-of-the-art that can further increase this potential. This work evaluating the potential of "game changing" improvements in enhanced oil recovery efficiency for CO2-EOR illustrates that the wide-scale implementation of next generation CO2-EOR technology advances have the potential to increase domestic oil recovery efficiency from about one-third to over 60 percent.

The presence of an oil bearing transition zone beneath the traditionally defined base (oil-water contact) of an oil reservoir is well established. What is now clear, and as recently documented in a series of DOE Office of Fossil Energy reports, is that, under certain geologic and hydrodynamic conditions, an additional residual oil zone (ROZ) exists below this transition zone, and this resource could add another 100 billion barrels of oil resource in place in the United States, and an estimated 20 billion barrels could be recoverable with state-of-the-art CO2-EOR technologies.

Large volumes of technically recoverable domestic oil resources remain undeveloped and are yet to be discovered in the United States, and this potential associated with CO2-EOR represents just a portion, albeit large, of this potential. Undeveloped domestic oil resources still in the ground (in-place) total 1,124 billion barrels. Of this large in-place resource, 430 billon barrels is estimated to be technically recoverable. This resource includes undiscovered oil, "stranded" light oil amenable to CO2 enhanced oil recovery technologies, unconventional oil (deep heavy oil and tar sands) and new petroleum concepts (residual oil in reservoir transition zones).

The Following is a Press Release from the Department of Energy Regarding CO2-EOR

Reports See Another 89-430 Billion Barrels of Oil Through Carbon Dioxide Injection, Other Advances

Washington, DC – State-of-the-art enhanced oil recovery with carbon dioxide, now recognized as a potential way of dealing with greenhouse gas emissions, could add 89 billion barrels to the recoverable oil resources of the United States, the Department of Energy has determined. Current U.S. proved reserves are 21.9 billion barrels.

The 89-billion-barrel jump in resources was one of a number of possible increases identified in a series of assessments done for the Department which also found that, in the longer term, multiple advances in technology and widespread sequestration of industrial carbon dioxide could eventually add as much as 430 billion new barrels to the technically recoverable resource.

Beginning efforts to develop the 89-billion-barrel addition to resources would depend on the availability of commercial CO2 in large volumes. If this oil could be added to the category of proven reserves, the U.S. would have the fifth largest oil reserves in the world behind Iraq, which has 115 billion barrels, based on present estimates; and an additional 430 billion barrels would make it first, ahead of Saudi Arabia with 261 billion barrels. The capture of CO2 from combustion in power generation and other industrial uses is the subject of other research and development programs sponsored by the Office of Fossil Energy.

Next-generation enhanced recovery with carbon dioxide was judged to be a "game-changer" in oil production, one capable of doubling recovery efficiency. And geologic sequestration of industrial carbon dioxide in declining oil fields was endorsed last year as a potential method of reducing greenhouse base emissions by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

Done in compliance with the National Energy Policy Act of 2005 and other Congressional directives, the assessments looked at maximizing oil production and accelerating the productive use of carbon dioxide in all categories of petroleum resources, including as-yet undiscovered oil and the new resources in the residual oil zone. The findings are consolidated in the February 2006 report Undeveloped Domestic Oil Resources: The Foundation for Increasing Oil Production and a Viable Domestic Oil Industry.

The 430 billion barrel potential was identified in increments of up to 110 billon barrels from applying today's state-of-the-art enhanced recovery in discovered fields – 90 billion in light oil, 20 billion in heavy oil; up to 179 billion barrels from undiscovered oil – 119 billion from conventional technology, 60 billion from enhanced recovery; up to 111 billion barrels from reserve growth – 71 billion from conventional technology, 40 billion from enhanced recovery; up to 20 billion from tapping the residual oil zone with enhanced recovery; and, another 10 billion from tar sands.

The separate assessments and reports contributing to the total resource estimate are: Basin Oriented Assessments, ten assessments of producing U.S. basins and the potential of state-of-the-art enhanced oil recovery; Stranded Oil in the Residual Oil Zone, five reports looking at new resources in the residual oil zone; and, Evaluation of the Potential for "Game-Changer" Improvements in Oil Recovery Efficiency for CO2 Enhanced Oil Recovery, a report on next-generation technology.

The Following is a Press Release from the Department of Energy Regarding CO2-EOR

U.S. Department of Energy • Office of Fossil Energy • Office of Oil and Natural Gas
February 2006

Project Facts
Game Changer Improvements Could Dramatically Increase
Domestic Oil Recovery Efficiency

The report, Evaluating the Potential for “Game-Changer” Improvements in Oil Recovery Efficiency from CO2 Enhanced Oil Recovery, examines how a “step-change” in the efficiency of carbon dioxide-based enhanced oil recovery (CO2-EOR) would help to increase oil production from domestic reservoirs.

Currently available primary and secondary oil production technologies recover only about one-third of the oil in-place in domestic reservoirs, leaving behind massive volumes of oil in the ground (“stranded oil”). Yet, scientific theory, laboratory tests, and selected field projects show that significant increases in oil recovery efficiency are possible. This technical report examines the role that “next generation” CO2-EOR technologies could provide in making “game changer” improvements in domestic oil recovery efficiency and in increasing domestic oil production. Three significant findings emerge from this study:

1. Traditionally practiced CO2-EOR technology will raise overall domestic oil recovery efficiency by only a few percent. The reasons for this relatively modest performance include: (1) CO2-EOR is still only applied in a few domestic oil basins, primarily the Permian Basin; (2) the traditional form of this technology is economic in a relatively small group of geologically favorable oil reservoirs; and, (3) most important, traditionally used CO2-EOR designs provide only a modest, 10% incremental recovery of the original oil in-place.

2. Integrated application of a suite of “next generation” technologies shows that much higher oil recovery efficiencies -- fully two-thirds of the oil in-place -- are feasible from an expanded group of domestic oil reservoirs. The analysis shows that a series of “next generation” CO2-EOR technologies could double the oil recovery efficiency from geologically favorable oil reservoirs and raise overall domestic oil recovery efficiency to over 60% of the original oil in place. In addition, “next generation” technology could extend the miscible CO2-EOR technology to a broader range of domestic oil reservoirs.

3. Successful development and integrated application of “next generation” CO2-EOR technologies could add 40 billion barrels of technically recoverable domestic oil resource (from the first six basins/regions studied). The previously issued six “basin-oriented” CO2-EOR studies reported that 43.3 billion barrels of domestic oil could become technically recoverable with “state-of-the-art” CO2-EOR technology. Successful development and integrated application of “next generation” CO2-EOR technologies could increase this to 83.7 billion barrels, from these six domestic oil basins/areas. (The potential for these “next generation” CO2-EOR technologies for the 10 basins/areas studied as of February 2006 has yet to be examined.)

Front-end Engineering Design, also known as Front End Engineering or "FEED," is the preliminary engineering and conceptual design completed in advance of the start of EPC (Engineering, Procurement and Construction). Front End Engineering usually concludes with the engineering firm's presentation of an Engineering Feasibility Study or Analysis.

Front-end Engineering Design includes a design team that includes and integrates all or most engineering fields such as mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, environmental engineering, civil engineering, power engineering, chemical engineering, etc. The FEED design team includes the project visualization and conceptualization stages, including "what-if" decision making analyses, integrating the client company's goals, objectives into an efficient and economic engineering solution.

Engineering, Procurement and Construction
(EPC) Contracts
and Performance Guarantees

Engineering Procurement Construction, also referred to as; Engineer Procure Construct, "EPC" or Engineering Procurement and Construction, is the terminology used when an owner, for example, is seeking to build a new cogeneration power plant uses when the owner is seeking a "turnkey" project solution. EPC contracts are not only a very common form of contracting within the construction industry, but increasingly becoming the norm, particularly in the electric power generation (power plants) and utility sector.

The construction company, via the EPC contract with the owner, provides for the design, engineering, procurement of all related supplies, components, materials, labor, services, etc. The contractor, with approval/permit by EPC contract with the owner, may sub-contract part of the work.

Engineering Procurement and Construction contracts give the owner unprecedented assurance that the system will provide the long-term energy benefits advertised without wasting time and money with the Architectural and Engineering ("A&E") firm or expensive change orders that take additional time and resources to process and integrate. These performance guarantees cover the entire installation and go way beyond manufacturer warranties that only cover specific parts and not the system as a whole.

EPC and performance guarantee contracts can be a wise choice for many reasons. Oftentimes, the Architectural and Engineering firms do not have the in-house expertise to understand fully how to specify renewable energy systems. Due to the newer nature of these technologies and the rapidly developing nature of many technologies, this is a specialized field of its own for each renewable technology type. If the Architectural and Engineering company specifies particular equipment, while it may be feasible, it may not be the optimal design or the most likely to be available at construction.

EPC contracts also provide more flexibility in equipment choices that can reduce change orders and construction delays. For example, many photovoltaic modules change specifications and dimensions on almost a monthly basis. Even the oldest and most reputable manufacturers are working to keep pace with fierce competition in the field today. Given that the modules are the heart of the photovoltaic system, it reasons that specifying a particular module in the construction documents might result in a change order and result in cost over runs and delays by actual construction.

Contractor Benefits

In an EPC contract with a performance guarantee, the contractor has a strong financial incentive to use the most reliable and highest performing equipment and to ensure the highest standards are maintained throughout installation and that any details that could influence long-term performance are addressed. Practices ranging from cherry picking the highest output modules to over-sizing wiring and conduit to improved operations and maintenance (O&M) plans might not be necessary for inspection or commissioning but can contribute to meeting the contractor's long-term performance liability. These same practices in turn enhance the long-term energy performance to the greater benefit of the facility and those that operate it.

Performance guarantee contracts attract top renewable energy contractors with long-term success in their fields. Less capable or experienced contractors will not savor the extra liability involved, nor will they have the expertise or even access to the top quality equipment necessary to fulfill a performance guarantee.

Contract Provisions

Certain provisions should be included with any EPC contract to ensure coordination and consistency with the remainder of the project. All contracts and subcontracts related to the project should include provisions requiring participation in the integrated design process including coordination of design with other related aspects of the project.

The EPC contractor needs to work with the Architectural and Engineering firm to understand the building elements that are necessary to the integration of the renewable energy system. In addition, an EPC contract needs provisions to ensure coordination with the larger project construction team. While coordination is important, this type of design and construction contract allows the contractors to do what they do best and frees more of the agency's critical planning resources for other aspects of the project.

Additional provisions standard with other construction contract terms should also be included in the EPC contract. These include requiring the team to perform enhanced commissioning over the first year and developing an O&M manual and training for the system.

Through a combination of EPC contracts combined with long-term performance guarantees, the construction relationship is transformed from being sometimes adversarial to being a win/win situation for everyone involved.

Now that greenhouse gas reporting is a vital and urgent issue for thousands of business in the U.S., and as they will now have to report their greenhouse gas emissions to the EPA, our Energy Master Plan format has been changed to address these concerns for all of the businesses we perform energy master planning services for.

Our energy master planning services are also focused in a broader focus as well for our customers interested in sustainable energy solutions for reducing their carbon footprint, fossil fuel intensity, total energy expenses, potential for blackouts as well as their overall vulnerabilities to being "tied" to their specific electric utility. Our energy master planning services also improve the air quality and work environment for all of our client's stakeholders through our focus on triple bottom-line results.

Our energy master planning services are not solely focused on our client's facilities' "demand side" of the energy equation, but also how our client's energy is acquired and purchased on their supply side. This understanding that supply and demand side planning is equally important enabled a holistic review of how CUMC uses and pays for energy and the impact of these sources on the environment.

Our energy master plan begins with a review of our client's past three years electricity, natural gas, oil, waste and water expenditures and depending on the final requirements and project scope authorized by the client, will typically include;

Did you know that 10% of our nation's electricity now comes from "cogeneration" plants?

And because cogeneration is so efficient, it saves its customers up to 40% on their energy expenses, and provides even greater savings to our environment through significant reductions in fuel usage and much lower greenhouse gas emissions.

Cogeneration - also known as “combined heat and power” (CHP), cogen, district energy, total energy, and combined cycle, is the simultaneous production of heat (usually in the form of hot water and/or steam) and power, utilizing one primary fuel such as natural gas, or a renewable fuel, such as Biomethane, B100 Biodiesel, or Synthesis Gas.

Cogeneration technology is not the latest industry buzz-word being touted as the solution to our nation's energy woes. Cogeneration is a proven technology that has been around for over 120 years!

Our nation's first commercial power plant was a cogeneration plant that was designed and built by Thomas Edison in 1882 in New York. Our nation's first commercial power plant was called the "Pearl Street Station."

Trigeneration is the simultaneous production of three forms of energy - typically, Cooling, Heating and Power - from only one fuel input. Put another way, our trigeneration power plants produce three different types of energy for the price of one.

Trigeneration energy systems can reach overall system efficiencies of 86% to 93%. Typical "central" power plants, that do not need the heat generated from the combustion and power generation process, are only about 33% efficient.

Trigeneration Diagram & Description
Trigeneration Power Plants' Have the Highest System Efficiencies and are
About 300 % More Efficient than Typical Central Power Plants

One of our company's principal's first experience with the design and development of a trigeneration power plant was the trigeneration power plant installation at Rice University in 1987 where our trigeneration development team started out by conducting a "cogeneration" feasibility study. The EPC contractor that Rice University selected installed the trigeneration power which included a 4.0 MW Ruston gas turbine power plant, along with waste heat recovery boilers and Absorption Chillers. A "waste heat recovery boiler" captures the heat from the exhaust of the gas turbine. From there, the recovered energy was converted to chilled water - originally from (3) Hitachi Absorption Chillers - 2 were rated at 1,000 tons each, and the third Hitachi Absorption Chiller was rated at 1,500 tons. The Hitachi Absorption Chillers were replaced shortly after their installation by the EPC company. The first trigeneration plant at Rice University was so successful, they added a second 5.0 MW trigeneration plant so today, Rice University is now generating about 9.0 MW of electricity, and also producing the cooling and heating the university needs from the trigeneration plant and circulating the trigeneration energy around its campus.

Trigeneration Chart
Trigeneration's "Super-Efficiency" compared
with other competing technologies
As you can see, there is No Competition for Trigeneration!

Our trigeneration power plants are the ideal onsite power and energy solution for customers that include: Data Centers, Hospitals, Universities, Airports, Central Plants, Colleges & Universities, Dairies, Server Farms, District Heating & Cooling Plants, Food Processing Plants, Golf/Country Clubs, Government Buildings, Grocery Stores, Hotels, Manufacturing Plants, Nursing Homes, Office Buildings / Campuses, Radio Stations, Refrigerated Warehouses, Resorts, Restaurants, Schools, Server Farms, Shopping Centers, Supermarkets, Television Stations, Theatres and Military Bases.

At about 86% to 93% net system efficiency, our trigeneration power plants are about 300% more efficient at providing energy than your current electric utility. That's because the typical electric utility's power plants are only about 33% efficient - they waste 2/3 of the fuel in generating electricity in the enormous amount of waste heat energy that they exhaust through their smokestacks.

Trigeneration is defined as the simultaneous production of three energies: Cooling, Heating and Power. Our trigeneration energy systems use the same amount of fuel in producing three energies that would normally only produce just one type of energy. This means our customers that have our trigeneration power plants have significantly lower energy expenses, and a lower carbon footprint.

Our New "Integrated" Trigeneration Plants Have
Very High Efficiencies & Low Fuel Costs

The Effective Heat Rate is Approximately
4050 btu/kW & System Efficiency is 92% Plants Have
Very High Efficiencies & Low Fuel Costs

Pictures (below) of a Cogeneration Plant Presently Being Built for New Customer.

This Cogeneration Plant is Rated at 900 kW and Features:
(2) Natural Gas Engines @ 450 kW each on one Skid with Optional
Selective Catalytic Reduction system that removes Nitrogen Oxides to "non-detect."

Our onsite trigeneration power and energy system can be an ideal solution for customers wanting increased power reliability and decreased energy and environmental costs. A few of the types of buildings and businesses that would benefit from an onsite trigeneration plant include the following:

In most cogeneration and trigeneration power and energy systems, the exhaust gas from the electric generation equipment is ducted to a heat exchanger to recover the thermal energy in the gas. These heat exchangers are air-to-water heat exchangers, where the exhaust gas flows over some form of tube and fin heat exchange surface and the heat from the exhaust gas is transferred to make hot water or steam. The hot water or steam is then used to provide hot water or steam heating and/or to operate thermally activated equipment, such as an absorption chiller for cooling or a desiccant dehumidifer for dehumidification.

Many of the waste heat recovery technologies used in building co/trigeneration systems require hot water, some at moderate pressures of 15 to 150 psig. In the cases where additional steam or pressurized hot water is needed, it may be necessary to provide supplemental heat to the exhaust gas with a duct burner.

In some applications air-to-air heat exchangers can be used. In other instances, if the emissions from the generation equipment are low enough, such as is with many of the microturbine technologies, the hot exhaust gases can be mixed with make-up air and vented directly into the heating system for building heating.

In the majority of installations, a flapper damper or "diverter" is employed to vary flow across the heat transfer surfaces of the heat exchanger to maintain a specific design temperature of the hot water or steam generation rate.

In some co/trigeneration designs, the exhaust gases can be used to activate a thermal wheel or a desiccant dehumidifier. Thermal wheels use the exhaust gas to heat a wheel with a medium that absorbs the heat and then transfers the heat when the wheel is rotated into the incoming airflow.

A professional engineer should be involved in designing and sizing of the waste heat recovery section. For a proper and economical operation, the design of the heat recovery section involves consideration of many related factors, such as the thermal capacity of the exhaust gases, the exhaust flow rate, the sizing and type of heat exchanger, and the desired parameters over a various range of operating conditions of the co/trigeneration system — all of which need to be considered for proper and economical operation.

The carbon clock tracks total carbon dioxide emissions in metric tons since 1750.

Since 1750, humans have emitted over 5 trillion pounds of carbon emissions into the atmosphere. Roughly half of this has ended up in the oceans where it is beginning to damage the coral reefs. The other half is still in the atmosphere and causing global warming. Each pound of CO2 takes up as much space as a 500 pound person.

The formula (which should be good for a year or two) is:
C(t) = 2.58 ×1012 + 1240×t, where t is seconds since the start of 2007.

C is tonnes (metric tons) of carbon dioxide emissions.
2205 x C gives pounds of carbon dioxide emissions.

That comes to over 43 billion tons/year or over 86 trillion pounds/year.

Carbon dioxide (2) = 1 carbon atom with 2 oxygen atoms.
Carbon has relative weight 12 and Oxygen 16.
So it takes only 12 pounds of carbon to make 12+16+16 = 44 pounds of CO2.

The electric power generation, transmission and distribution system (the electric "grid") is changing and evolving from the electric grid of the 19th and 20th centuries, which was inefficient, highly-polluting, very expensive and “dumb.”

According to Monty Goodell, Founder and Chairman of the Renewable Energy Institute, "our increased dependence and reliance on foreign energy supplies represents a Clear and Present Danger to our national security, our economy, and the lives and livelihood of every American. Energy - including the energy we use from imported fossil fuels, is the very "lifeblood" of the American economy as it is for every industrialized country. An economy dies without it's lifeblood of energy. This Clear and Present Danger we face is far more serious than the problems related to greenhouse gas emissions. And while greenhouse gas emissions are very serious issue, in the long-term, pales in comparison to America's vital national security interests and America's economic stability in the short term. For this reason alone, America needs to transition away from its addiction to foreign energy supplies. And America's abundant renewable energy resources such as the energy we receive from the sun, and renewable energy technologies such as concentrated solar power (CSP) plants - can supply 100% of America's power requirements with a concentrating solar power plant measuring 75 miles by 75 miles, located in the Southwest U.S. By generating America's power from concentrating solar power plants, America resolves its' short-term Clear and Present Danger as it relates to importing its energy from foreign countries, and the long-term problems relating to greenhouse gas emissions."

Continuing, Mr. Goodell states that "too many Americans have forgotten what happened to us in 1973, when the Arabs and OPEC brought the United States economy to a screeching halt during the OPEC Oil Embargo. This happened because they (mainly the country of Saudi Arabia) disagreed with our foreign policy and is the reason why they "turned off the tap" of our need for their oil supplies. When Saudi Arabia and OPEC stopped the vital flow of oil to our country in 1973, they caused an "oil shock" that severely and negatively impacted our economy.

Mr. Goodell's question for us to ponder is, "do these countries who sell us 60% of our daily energy requirements, like us and our foreign policy, or might they leverage our addiction to their fossil fuels, and turn off the tap to make us adjust or revise our foreign policy?? Like any addict, America's foreign policy may be held hostage to its addiction, and in this case, our addiction to foreign oil, may over-ride our national interests."

Have American's forgotten the gas shortages and long lines at
their gas stations to get gas during the Arab Oil Embargo of 1973?

"Apparently so." Mr. Goodell states that "in 1973, America was 'addicted' and 'over the barrel' of foreign oil to the amount of 40%. Forty percent of our energy 'needs' in 1973 came from countries - many of which didn't like us then, and I'm afraid, many of them still don't. The difference between 1973 and today - is that today we receive 50% MORE foreign oil now than we did in 1973. And now we know about the problems relating to greenhouse gas emissions that we didn't know then. America needs to change course, and change course now, in terms of its' energy supplies and how we keep America's economy strong, without the threat of being held hostage to a middle-east tyrant or regime, that could once again, turn on us, and turn off our supply of foreign oil."

"Sadly, most Americans have forgotten the long lines of people waiting in their cars - lined up and waiting for gasoline at their nearby gas station, with lines that were many blocks long. And, after waiting 4-5 hours, many even waiting overnight in many places, to finally take their turn to fill up their car with gasoline, only to find that the gas station had run out of gas."

"Let me Repeat.... That was 1973 when we imported 40% of our daily energy requirements in the form of crude oil from overseas, and from foreign countries - and many of these from countries that don't like us.

Today, over 35 years later, America has yet to learn the lesson. We cannot continue our reliance on energy from foreign countries that supply us with 60% of the crude oil that our refineries use as a feedstock for producing gasoline and diesel fuel for our cars and trucks comes from overseas.

America is "over the barrel" and it's not our barrel, but the barrels of oil that we are addicted by and owned by other countries. Why have we not learned the lessons we needed to learn in 1973 when we were cut-off from the vital energy supplies we need?

Countries like China, are growing rapidly, and have an insatiable need for crude oil. China, with their booming economy, is increasingly growing in its clout and control over international supplies of crude oil - whether they do this through their ability to buy as much oil as they need on a daily basis, or whether they simply but American drilling rigs, technology, and explore and produce oil and gas from their own fields. China, is buying large amounts of oil for their country, and causing upward pricing on declining supplies. What happens if Russia, with all of their oil and natural gas, along with China and Venezuela, with or without the help of OPEC, decided to NOT sell oil to us????

America's reliance for 60% of our energy "needs" coming from foreign suppliers is un-acceptable.

The "driver" to get America to begin reducing and eliminating fossil fuel use should be our nation's national security and the welfare and safety of its citizens. And this can all begin with developing and investing in our own renewable energy resources and renewable energy technologies, let's start by putting solar on every rooftop that has a clear and unobstructed view of the Southern sky. See www.RooftopPV.com or www.DistributedPV.com for more information. Let's create incentives begin with adopting a national "Feed In Tariff" as Germany did in 1990.

Zero Emission Power
www.ZeroEmissionPower.com

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Enhanced Oil Recovery Through CO2 Injection & Carbon Capture and Sequestration Some of the following information courtesy of the Department of Energy

CO2 Injection Offers Considerable Potential Benefits

DOE Basin-Oriented CO2-EOR Assessments

Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC) Contracts and Performance Guarantees

Contractor Benefits

Contract Provisions

Enhanced Oil Recovery
Through CO2 Injection & Carbon Capture and Sequestration

Some of the following information courtesy of the Department of Energy

Engineering, Procurement and Construction
(EPC) Contracts
and Performance Guarantees